Giuseppe Repetto

Giuseppe Repetto Photography

Welcome in FRANCE

-FRANCE-   Introduction:
The French wrote the book on la vie en rose and gave the world crème brûlée and camembert, de Beauvoir and Debussy, the Tour de France and the Tour Eiffel. So if they have a finely tuned sense of national pride, who are we to point fingers? Although the ubiquity of Levis and Le Big Mac flusters the country's cultural purists, anything from a year in Provence to a weekend in Paris will explain why half the world grows dreamy over stalking the streets of Cyrano or picnicking Manet-style sur l'herbe. France has been synonymous with Romance for longer than your grandmother cares to remember, so whether you visit Paris or the Pyrenees, the Côte d'Azur or the auberge de jeunesse, be sure to keep your fantasies in check, your expectations in line and your joie in your vivre.
Warning
French agricultural officials confirmed March 14, 2001 that foot-and-mouth disease has spread from Britain into northwestern France. Travelers to the region should go out of their way to keep their feet out of their mouths and expect heightened security at border crossings, possible roadblocks and shortages of meat and dairy products at supermarkets. The virulent disease affects a range of animals including cows, pigs and sheep; it's primarily spread through close contact with carriers, though wind currents can also spread the disease across many kilometres. Though humans aren't affected, they can spread the disease via their clothing and vehicles.
Full country name: French Republic
Area: 551,000 sq km (214,890 sq mi)
Population: 59 million
Capital city: Paris (pop 13 million)
People: 92% French, 3% North African, 2% German, 1% Breton, 2% Other (including Provençal, Catalan & Basque)
Language: French (also Flemish, Alsacian, Breton, Basque, Catalan, Provençal & Corsican)
Religion: 90% Roman Catholic, 2% Protestant, 1% Muslim, 1% Jewish, 6% unaffiliated
Government: Democracy
President: Jacques Chirac
Prime Minister: Lionel Jospin

GDP: US$1.32 trillion
GDP per head: US$22,700
Annual growth: 4%
Inflation: 2%
Major industries: Oil refining, steel, cement, aluminium, agricultural products & foodstuffs, luxury goods, chemicals, motor manufacturing, energy products
Major trading partners: EU, USA
Member of EU yes 
-Facts for the Traveler-
Visas: Nationals of the EU, the USA, Canada, New Zealand, Australia and Israel do not require visas to visit France as tourists for up to three months. Except for people from a handful of other European countries, everyone else must have a visa.
Health risks: Your main risks are likely to be sunburn, foot blisters, insect bites and upset stomachs from overeating and drinking.
Time: GMT/UTC plus one hour
Electricity: 220V, 50Hz
Weights & measures: Metric 
-When to Go-
Spring offers the best weather to visitors, with beach tourism picking up in May. Temperatures aren't too bad in Autumn, although the short days mean limited sunlight and the cold starts to make itself felt towards the end of the season, even along the Côte d'Azur. Winter means playing in the snow in France's Alps and Pyrenees, though the Christmas school holidays send hordes of tadpoles in uniform scurrying for the slopes. Mid-July through the end of August is when most city dwellers take their annual five weeks' vacation to the coasts and mountains, and the half-desolate cities tend to shut down a bit accordingly. Likewise during February and March.
-Events-
The French are a festive bunch with many cities hosting music, dance, theatre, cinema or art events each year. Rural villages hold fairs and fêtes which celebrate everything from local saints to agricultural progress. Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer in Provence is the venue for a colourful gypsy festival in late May honouring Sarah, patron saint of the gypsies. Enthusiastic singing and dancing characterise this extravaganza. Prominent national days off are May Day (1 May), when people trade gifts of muguet (lily of the valley) for good luck; and Bastille Day (14 July), which is celebrated by throwing firecrackers at friends. Regional events include the primping and preening prêt à porter fashion show in Paris (early February); the glittering and often canned Cannes Film Festival (mid-May); the International Music Festival in Strasbourg (first three weeks of June); the mainstream and fringe theatre of the Festival d'Avignon (mid-July to mid-August) and the Jazz Festival in Nancy (9-24 October).
-Money & Costs-
Currency: French franc (FF) 
Relative Costs:
Meals
·  Budget: US$5-15 
·  Mid-range: US$15-30 
·  Top-end: US$30 and upwards

Lodging
·  Budget: US$25-35 
·  Mid-range: US$35-60 
·  Top-end: US$60 and upwards

The land of the US$5 café au lait is not exactly Europe's cheapest destination, but that doesn't mean you have to break the bank to visit. Devoted scrimpers can get by on around US$40 per day, though it means a whole lot of brie-and-baguettings in the park. For a more well-rounded culinary experience and a comfy bed or two, a minimum of US$80 is in order. Of course, for the Dom Perignon crowd, those figures might not cover even the day's pourboires - count on dropping US$200 and up if you're really living large. Student and senior citizen discounts are common.
Traveller's cheques are the safest, most convenient way to carry funds in France and are almost universally accepted, especially in larger towns and tourist centres. Banks and exchange bureaux give better exchange rates for traveller's cheques than for cash; Banque de France offers the best rates in the country. France's ATMs accept all the major international credit and bank cards, and credit cars also get a better exchange rate on purchases. Leaving a pourboire (tipping) is done at your discretion - restaurants and accommodations add 10-15% to every bill, but most people leave a few coins if the service was satisfactory.
-Attractions-
Paris
The capital and gem in France's tourist crown, Paris is a glutton for superlatives and travel clichés. As a result, visitors often arrive all moist and runny with giddy expectations of grand vistas and romance along the Seine, of landscapes painted on bus-sized canvases, of phenomenally haughty people, of pick-an-ist types in cafés monologuing on the use of garlic or the finer points of Jerry Lewis. True, you can usually find whatever you expect or hope to discover. But an equally effective way of enjoying your stay in the city is to leave your expectations in the hotel, wander aimlessly around the backstreets and avenues, and just see what you see.
Saint Malo
The Channel port of Saint Malo on the north coast of Brittany is renowned for its piratical past, walled city and nearby beaches. During the 17th and 18th centuries, it was one of France's most important ports, serving both merchant ships and privateers alike. It was at this time that a system of walls and fortifications were built - largely to offset the menace of English marauders - but these defences remained weak, and the pickings rich. Flattened by the Germans in WWII, the port was faithfully reconstructed and is today one of the most popular tourist destinations in the region.
Within the parameters of the Old City stands the Cathédrale Saint Vincent. Begun in the 11th century, the cathedral is the repository of an excellent collection of medieval and modern stained-glass windows. During July and August, it is also host to a number of classical concerts. Video-burdened tourists are a common sight strolling around the ramparts, which afford wonderful views of Saint Malo.
Squatting south of the Old City is the 18th-century Fort de la Cité, once a German stronghold during WWII. Flanking the bulwark's walls are steel pillboxes heavily pimpled by Allied shells while the interior, now used by caravanners, is theoretically off-limits to visitors but no-one will stop you if you walk in via the main entrance.
Saint Malo's other attractions include placid beaches to the south of the Old City and further along the coast to the north-east. The area has some of the highest tidal variations in the world, so expect a hefty jaunt to reach the aqua at low tide: the high-water mark is often 13m (43ft) above the low-water mark. Saint Malo is an excellent base from which to explore the Côte d'Émeraude, and the famous abbey at Mont Saint Michel can be visited as a day trip.
Château de Chambord
From the 15th to the 18th century, the Loire Valley was the playground of French nobility, who used the nation's wealth to transform the area with a multitude of earnestly extravagant chateaux. Formerly built as defensive structures, they gradually metamorphosed into whimsical pleasure palaces situated to make the most of their natural surroundings.
The largest and most lavish chateau in the Loire Valley is the Château de Chambord. Begun in 1519, its Renaissance flourishes may have been inspired by Leonardo da Vinci, who lived nearby from 1516 until his death three years later. In any event, the chateau is the creation of King François I, a rapacious lunatic who left his two sons unransomed in Spain and was fanatically dishonest with his subjects' money. Construction of the chateau, during which François unsuccessfully suggested the rerouting of the Loire River so it would be nearer to his new abode, took 15 years and several thousand workers, although the king died wizened and drooly before the building's completion - no doubt his sons thought this richly deserved.
Inside is a famed double-helix staircase that buxom mistresses and priapic princes chased each other up and down, when not assembled on the rooftop terrace to watch military exercises, tournaments and hounds and hunters returning from a day's deerstalking. From the terrace you can see the towers, cupolas, chimneys, mosaic slate roofs and lightning rods that comprise the chateau's imposing skyline.
Biarritz
The number of people in this popular coastal resort in French Basque Country swells dramatically over summer. Once favoured by European aristocracy and later by money-laden Britons, Biarritz now draws an international crowd to its fine beaches, casinos and surfing spots, which have lent it the name la Californie de l'Europe.
The town's cultural sights are not likely to keep you out of the sun too long. They include a blue-domed Russian Orthodox church, hotels with lobbies the size of skating rinks and the Musée de la Mer. The latter - recently refurbished - has an aquarium with numerous tanks of sea life and a museum documenting the area's involvement in commercial fishing and whaling. Outside pools contain seals and sharks.
Biarritz's fashionable beaches are lined with brightly striped bathing tents and packed with people during summer. After a busy day's frying you can play golf or cesta punta, the world's fastest game, played with a ball and scoop-like racquet; be entertained by nightly folklore performances; or trawl through displays of Basque music and handicrafts.
Sarlat-La-Canéda
Known simply as Sarlat, this lovely Renaissance town in Périgord (better known in English-speaking countries as the Dordogne) grew up around a Benedictine abbey founded in the 9th century. Caught between French and English territory, it was almost left in ruins during the Hundred Years' War and again during the Wars of Religion. Despite this, Sarlat retains a distinctive medieval flavour with its ochre-coloured sandstone buildings and enticing streets. If you want to avoid the crowds, plan a visit outside high summer, when the town is overrun by tourists.
Among Sarlat's architectural treasures is the Cathédrale Saint Sacerdos, originally part of the Benedictine abbey. Higgledy-piggledy in style, most of the present structure dates from the 17th century. Behind the cathedral is the town's first cemetery containing the Lantern of the Dead, a 12th-century tower built to commemorate St Bernard, who visited in 1147 and whose relics were given to the abbey. The town's other main focus is the Saturday market. Depending on the season, foie gras, mushrooms, truffles, trussed-up geese and sheep's heads with rheumy eyes are traded among a racket of vendors and spectators.
Sarlat also makes an excellent base for trips to the nearby Vézère Valley, which is peppered with nearly 200 prehistoric sites including the Lascaux cave, thought to have been the site of a hunting cult where magical rites were performed. Discovered in 1940, this capacious labyrinth holds a number of 15,000-year-old doodles and paintings of bulls, horses and reindeer. There are other painted caves in the area, but Lascaux is sans pareil. Unfortunately, the exhalations of enthusiastic rock-watchers caused a carbon-dioxide fungus to cover the paintings; visitors today are restricted to a precise cement replica of the painted original, sealed off just a few hundred metres away.
Chamonix
The town of Chamonix lies in one of the most spectacular valleys of the French Alps. Reminiscent of the Himalayas, the area is dominated by deeply crevassed glaciers and the cloud-diademed peak of Mont Blanc. In late spring and summer, the glaciers and high-altitude snow and ice serve as a backdrop for meadows and hillsides carpeted with wildflowers, shrubbery and trees. This is the best time for hiking; in winter, travellers can take advantage of over 200km (125 mi) of downhill and cross-country skiing trails.
Not to be missed is the Aigulle du Midi, a solitary spire of rock several kilometres from the summit of Mont Blanc which stretches across glaciers and snow fields. Easily accessible, the views from the top are postcard-perfect. A further treat is a trans-glacial ride on the world's highest téléphérique (cable car), which stops en route at skiing and hiking destinations. The Mer de Glace is the second-largest glacier in the Alps. It measures 14km (9 mi) long, 1800m (5900ft) wide and is up to 400m (1315ft) deep. For a better look at the glacier from the inside, you can tour an ice cave that is carved anew each spring. There is also a train that ascends to an altitude of 1915m (6275ft) and a number of uphill trails, but traversing the glacier is dangerous and should not be done without proper equipment and a guide.
Other activities in and around Chamonix include mountain biking, parasailing, ice-skating and screaming down a spit-shined summer luge track. The Swiss town of Martigny is only 40km (25mi) north of Chamonix, should you wish to border hop for watch repair or chocolate.
Arles
The charming city of Arles, on the Grand Rhône River in Provence, rose to prominence in 49-46 BC when a triumphal Julius Caesar captured and despoiled nearby Marseille. It soon became the region's commercial hub and an important Roman provincial centre with enormous public spaces that are still in use today. Vincent Van Gogh settled here in the late 19th century, fashioning hundreds of drawings and paintings when he took a break from pestering his ear. On hot summer days you can watch the waves of heat rising from the plains, just as Van Gogh did a century ago; olive groves and vineyards - often featured in his work - still cover the surrounding limestone hills. Arles is also noted for its houses with striking red barrel-tiled roofs and shady, twisting alleys too narrow to swing a cat (trust us).
Arles' attractions include the Les Arènes, an enormous Roman ampitheatre built towards the end of the 1st century AD. Tens of thousands of men and animals were sacrificed here to that most noble of pursuits - sport. Chariot races and hand-to-hand battles were staged with slaughter emphasised over tactics, but the public seemed happy. The Arènes was later transformed into a fortress, then a residential area but its sanguinary origins have been reawakened in the full houses drawn to bullfights. Another of the city's Roman relics is the Théâtre Antique, which provides an ideal setting for open-air dance, film and music festivals in the summer.
Central Arles is a relaxed place of intimate squares, terraced brasseries perfect for sipping pastis and men with long pomaded moustaches playing pétanque.
Cannes
This resort, on the world-famous Côte d'Azur, is the perennial favourite of wealthy scions and the shop-til-you-drop set. During the International Film Festival in May, Cannes is crammed with more money, more champagne, more mobile phones and more cleavage than anywhere else in the world. Apart from posturing boutiques, hotels and restaurants, it also has beaches with the equivalent of room service, which the sallow studiously avoid.
If you're not in town discussing the grim phenomena of John Travolta's resurrection or puckering up to the paparazzi, then you're here to people-watch. Every possible specimen is on promenade along the famous Boulevard de la Croisette: yesteryear starlets in string bikinis; vacationing Frenchmen carrying purses; wide Americans with Coppertone skins who wear their jewellery in the pool; and side-whiskered peasants in rough waistcoats and country boots wondering what all the fuss is about. After a walk, settle back at one of the many cafes and restaurants - overflowing with gold-carded patrons - which light up the area with splashy neon signs.
Just offshore is the eucalyptus and pine-covered Île Sainte Marguerite, which was exploited so effectively by Alexander Dumas in his classic novel The Man in the Iron Mask. This small island is vectored by trails and paths while its beaches are considerably less crowded than those on the mainland. Even smaller is the nearby Île Saint Honorat, once the site of a renowned and powerful monastery founded in the 5th century, and today the home of a Cistercian monastic order. Ferries run to both islands.
-Off the Beaten Track-
Île d'Ouessant
This wild but beautiful island epitomises the ruggedness of the Brittany coast. An old local saying 'Qui voit Ouessant voit son sang' ('He who sees Ouessant sees his blood') dramatically expresses its untamed nature and the fear inspired by the area's powerful currents and treacherous rocks. The 8km (5mi)-long island guards the entrance to the Channel, and is appreciated as a visual landmark by over 50,000 ships every year.
While the inhabitants are no longer isolated from the rest of the world, centuries of tradition prevail: houses are painted blue and white for the Virgin Mary, or green and white to symbolise hope with interiors furnished from driftwood; gnarled old women make lace crosses to represent the souls of their husbands lost at sea; small black sheep roam freely over the land; and ragoût de mouton (lamb baked under a layer of roots and herbs) remains a staple dish. Ouessant also has the world's most powerful lighthouse, good museums on local history and stunning walks and scenery.
The island is 20km from the mainland and can be reached from the ports of Brest or Le Conquet on Brittany's north-western coast.
Parc National des Pyrénées
Created in 1967, the Pyrenees National Park stretches for about 100km (60mi) along the French-Spanish border and covers an area of 460 sq km (180 sq mi) that contains hundreds of high-altitude lakes and the highest point in the French Pyrenees, the 3300m (10,825ft) Sommet du Vignemale.
Forested areas make up only 12% of the park, which is streaked by rivulets and brooks fed by both springs and over 2000mm (78in) of annual precipitation, much of which falls as snow. Protected fauna includes the brown bear (only about 15 remain), lynx, chamois, marmot and endangered birds of prey such as the bearded vulture and golden eagle.
A big favourite with rock climbers and hikers, the park has 350km (215mi) of trails - some interlinked with trails in Spain - plus a good number of refuges (basic mountain huts) that are open throughout the year. Companies in nearby Pau can arrange guided treks for small groups as well as logistical support for unaccompanied hikes and cycling trips. Cauterets, in the eastern portion of the park and 30km (20mi) south of Lourdes, is the easiest and most accessible entry point.
Vézelay
The tiny walled town of Vézelay, another of France's exasperating number of heritage spots, is surrounded by some of the most beautiful countryside in Burgundy - a patchwork of vineyards, sunflower fields, brunette furrows of farmland and stacks of hay reinventing Impressionism. Originally built on a hilltop for defence purposes, it became an important site of pilgrimage in the 10th century and later a gathering place for crowned heads and grandees embarking on the Crusades.
Vézelay's focal point is the Basilique Sainte Madeleine, a former abbey church that was founded in the 9th century. During the Middle Ages, it housed what were believed to be the relics of St Mary Magdalene, which ensured a steady stream of pilgrims on her saint's day, 22 July. This tradition continues, and every year celebrations include a procession in which the relics are paraded around town. Magnificently restored, the church features a tympanum that is considered a masterpiece of Burgundian-style Romanesque architecture, grotesque carvings, sculpted capitals and an enormous nave. Behind the basilica is a park that has wonderful views of the Cure River valley and nearby villages, while walks in almost any direction will deposit you in rural loveliness.
Vézelay is 15km (9mi) from Avallon, 51km (31mi) from Auxerre, and lies within the Parc Naturel Régional du Morvan.
Grasse
Clinging to the slopes of the Pre-Alpes 17km (11mi) north of Cannes, Grasse has served the country well in the art of perfume production for centuries. It is here that master perfumers - also known as 'nez' (noses) - train their probosci for seven years to recognise around 6000 scents. The town, with its distinctive orange roofs sheltering densely packed cottages, also produces some of France's finest flowers, including jasmine, Centifolia rose, lavender, mimosa, orange blossom and narcotic narcissus.
Of the 40 perfumeries, only three are open to the public. The conveniently placed Fragonard is housed in a 17th-century former tannery. A tour will take you through cellars filled with stacks of soaps, bales of scented leather, and chests and crates stuffed with spices. Every stage of perfume production is evidenced here, from extraction and distillation to the work of the nez, as well as the vast number of flowers needed to make one litre of essence. At the end you'll be squirted with a few house scents, invited to purchase as many as you'd like and will leave the scene reeking.
Corsica
Located 170km (105mi) southeast of the Côte d'Azur, Corsica is the geological envy of all the other islands of the Mediterranean. From mountain ranges with tumbling torrents to endless stretches of fine-sand beaches, it offers highly photogenic scenery as well as ample opportunities for hiking. Corsica is suffused with a welcoming ambience courtesy of the islanders' distinctive language, cuisine and way of life. The committed movement for Corsican independence is the harder edge of this distinctive culture. Although nationalist groups generally restrict their violence to internal tit-for-tat killings and property damage, travellers are advised to act with caution.
The port city of Ajaccio, birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte, is where most begin a visit to the island. Although subject to recent modernisation, this pastel-shaded, French-Mediterranean city remains a fine place for a stroll, especially noodling along the narrow streets that wind through the older parts of town. Apart from a number of monuments and museums devoted to Napoleonic lore, you can visit the Pointe de la Parata, a black granite promontory famous for its sunsets, or bathe in the beaches just out of town.
The island's most famous natural sight is Les Calanche, a spectacular mountain landscape of multicoloured granite forms resembling both nightmarish and prosaic people, animals and buildings. When it's clear, there are terrific views of both the Mediterranean and the northern mountains. There are a series of short but challenging hiking trails nearby. The Citadelle of Bonifacio, in Corsica's extreme south, is perched atop a long, narrow promontory of limestone cliffs. The town was subjected to several cruel sieges during the Middle Ages and retains a medieval ambience by way of its cramped alleyways and flying buttresses funnelling rainwater. Calvi, also radiating from its citadel, is a beachy town in the north-west of Corsica. The coast between Calvi and l'Île Rousse, 25km (16mi) to the north, is punctuated by a series of attractive beaches.
The best time to visit Corsica is during May and June, when the island is generally sunny, the wildflowers are in bloom and it's not overrun with Eurotourists. Corsica's towns are accessible by direct air connections from mainland France's large metropolitan airports, as well as from other European cities. Ferry links are cheaper, but all routes are frequently cut by strikes, sometimes for weeks at a time.
-Activities-
France's varied geography and climate allow for a wide ride range of outdoor pursuits. The French have taken to hiking with gusto, and there are walking paths through every imaginable kind of terrain. Probably the best known trails are the sentiers de grande randonnée, long-distance footpaths designated by the letters GR. The GR 5 winds through the Alps, the GR 4 is in the Massif Central and the popular GR 10 runs along the Pyrenees from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. Cycling is another mania in France. La Margeride in Languedoc is a particularly inviting area for mountain biking, as are the Alps, Brittany and the Pyrenees. Skiing is also popular with some of Europe's finest - and most expensive - facilities in the Alps (at Chamonix, for example), though prices tend to be much cheaper in the Pyrenees around Cauterets and the Massif Central, which is good for cross-country skiing.
The best swimming spots are found along the Atlantic coast (near La Rochelle), the Channel coast of Normandy, southern Brittany, the Mediterranean (including the coast of Corsica) as well as on lakes such as Lac d'Annecy and Lake Geneva. The French are at ease with their bodies, and this is reflected in a number of venues for naturism (walking around bollock naked), mostly in Langedoc-Rousillon and the Côte d'Azur. Other activities include: rock climbing in the Alps and the Pyrenees; horse riding in Burgundy and the French Basque Country; surfing in Biarritz; rafting down the Gorge du Verdon in Provence; and hang-gliding in Languedoc. If your interests are more cerebral, you can take French language courses or learn the ins and outs of the soufflé at regional cooking classes.
-History-
Humans have inhabited France for about 90,000 years. The Celtic Gauls arrived between 1500 and 500 BC; after several centuries of conflict with Rome, Gaul lost the territory to Julius Caesar in 52 BC, and by the 2nd century AD the region had been partly Christianised. In the 5th century the Franks (thus 'France') and other Germanic groups overran the country.
The Middle Ages were marked by a succession of power struggles between warring Frankish dynasties. The Capetian Dynasty was a time of prosperity and scholarly revivalism despite continued battles with England over feudal rights. During this period, France was also embroiled in the Crusades, a holy war instigated by the Church against non-Christians. The Capetian Dynasty waned by the early 15th century as France continued to fight England in the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453), which featured 17-year-old firebrand Jeanne d'Arc.
Religious and political persecution, culminating in the Wars of Religion (1562-98), continued to threaten France's stability during the 16th century. In 1572, some 3000 Protestant Huguenots were slaughtered in Paris. The Huguenots were later guaranteed religious, civil and political rights. By the early 17th century the country was held in thrall by Cardinal Richelieu, who moved to establish an absolute monarchy and increase French power in Europe.
Louis XIV (the Sun King) ascended the throne in 1643 at the age of five and ruled until 1715. Throughout his reign, he hounded the Protestant minority, quashed the feuding aristocracy and created the first centralised French state. But as the 18th century progressed, the ancien régime (old order) became dangerously out of sync with the rest of the country, and was further weakened by the Enlightenment's anti-Establishment and anticlerical ideas. France's involvement in the Seven Years' War (1756-63) and the American War of Independence (1776-83) was financially ruinous for the monarchy, and the latter provided ammunition for opponents of French absolutism.
By the late 1780s, most every French citizen had strong reasons for being fed up with Louis XVI and his swell-headed queen, Marie Antoinette. When the king tried to neutralise the power of reform-minded economists, the urban masses took to the streets. On 14 July 1789, a Parisian mob attacked the Invalides, seized weapons and stormed the Bastille prison, the ultimate symbol of the despotism of the ancien régime. At first, the Revolution was in the hands of moderates, but from this milieu emerged the radical Jacobins, led by Robespierre, Danton and Marat. They established the First Republic in 1792, holding virtual dictatorial control over the country during the Reign of Terror (1793-4), which saw mass executions religious persecution. Ultimately the Revolution turned on its own, and many of its leaders, including Robespierre and Danton, were pruned by Madame la Guillotine.
Buoyed by a series of military victories abroad, mercurial Napoleon Bonaparte assumed domestic power in 1799, sparking a series of wars in which France came to control most of Europe. Ultimately, a disastrous campaign against Russia in 1812 led to Bony's downfall - he was banished to the tiny Mediterranean island of Elba. His escape and

FRANCE SPOT GUIDE